All modern Human societies feel the need to dispose of the dead in specific, often highly ritualised, ways, and this appears to have been the case for much of the history of our species, and potentially other members of the genus Homo. Cremation is an effective way to achieve this, transforming the recognisable remains of a member of the community into a small amount of ash and calcined bone fragments in a relatively short period of time. However, this process also requires the effort and co-ordination to build a funeral pyre of sufficient size, and does not appear to have become common or widespread until the Middle Holocene.
The oldest known assemblage of burned Human remains comes from Lake Mungo in New South Wales and have been dated to about 40 000 years before the present, although these remains appear to have gone through a multi-stage ritual process which included burning, rather than being a single cremation event as the main way to deal with the remains. The oldest evidence of a body being burned on a pyre comes from a site called Xaasaa Na′ (Upward Sun River) in the Alaskan Arctic, where a child of about three years, who was burned about 11 500 years ago. The oldest known burned remains in Africa are about 7500 years old and come from Egypt, but it is unclear whether these were deliberately cremated. The oldest known evidence for deliberate cremation in Africa comes from Njoro River Cave in Kenya, and is only about 3300 years old.
In a paper published in the journal Science Advances on 1 January 2026, a team of scientists led by Jessica Cerezo-Román of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Oklahoma present evidence for a deliberate cremation, from the Hora 1 archaeological site at the foot of Mount Hora in the Mzimba District of Northern Malawi.
Mount Hora is a 110 m high granite inselberg (isolated hill) rising above the Kasitu River Valley, which forms a distinctive regional landmark. The Hora 1 archaeological site is a rock shelter at the base of this hill, opening to the east and incorporating a flat dry area of about 80 m². This site is easily accessed from all directions, and contains no enclosed areas which could act as a natural furnace. No other natural rock shelters could be found in the region. Hora 1 has produced a record of Human occupation stretching over more than 21 000 years, and appears to have been used for mortuary practices between about 16 000 years ago and about 8000 years ago.
HOR-1 site (11°39′S, 33°39′E; 1470 m above mean sea level, white stipples) relative to published excavated Later Stone Age (LSA) sites. Light green in inset outlines the Zambezian Biome. Cluster of sites near Mpunzi (or Mphunzi) Mountain includes six additional sites, three with human remains (Mtuzi, Changoni Bible School, and Chencherere II). Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
This site was first excavated by Desmond Clark and William Rangeley in the 1950s, who excavated an area of 7-8 m² (Clark and Rangeley did not record measurements of the area they excavated, but did take photographs, which have been used to reconstruct the extent of their work). These excavations produced the almost complete remains of two adult Humans, HOR-1 (or UTC-242), a male directly dated to between 9081 and 8725 years before the present, and Hora 2 (or UTC-243), a female directly dated to between 8172 and 7875 years before the present. Both of these skeletons have yielded ancient DNA, suggesting a relationship to modern hunter-gatherer populations in Southern Africa.
Between 2016 and 2019, the Malawi Ancient Lifeways and Peoples Project carried out further excavations at the site, removing and sieving 7.8 m³ of sediment from two blocks which produced about 46 500 objects, including the almost incomplete skeletons of two male infants (Kahora 1 and Kahora 2), which have been indirectly dated (i.e. dated from material found with them, not directly from the skeletal material) to about 14 000 and about 16 000 years before the present, and which have also yielded ancient DNA, as well as fragmentary remains attributed to at least four additional adults (Hora 4 to Hora 7) and five additional non-adults (Kahora 2 to Kahora 3), as well as numerous animal remains. Examination of these fragmentary remains has suggested that they may have been subjected to complex mortuary practices, including secondary burials (i.e. burials either after being buried once and then excavated, or after having been either left unburied for an extensive period, or having been subjected to ritual behaviours which substantially altered the remains), which may have included ritual token-taking.
Views of HOR-1. (A) Plan view of the HOR-1 site georectified onto drone imagery, showing the open overhang, accessibility, and Malawi Ancient Lifeways and Peoples Project (MALPP) excavation Area I and II. (B) View from the north of the open site access. (C) Plan view of the Malawi Ancient Lifeways and Peoples Project Area I excavations, Kahora 1 and Kahora 2 infant burials, and Hora 3 remains, with the outline of the original 1950 excavations and position of the Hora 2 skeleton by Clark and Rangely, reconstructed using an archival site photograph. Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Cerezo-Román et al. report the discovery of a large ash feature at Hora 1, along with an associated set of remains attributed to a single cremated adult, who they designate as Hora 3. Hora 3 is calculated to have been chronologically intermediate between Hora 2 and Kahora 1. As such it appears to form part of a genetically continuous population which lived in the area across the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary, although (unsurprisingly) it was not possible to extract DNA from the cremated remains.
The 'ash feature' forms a large cemented block, dated to about 9500 years before the present, which overlies a Pleistocene sediment sequence which begins 17 000 years ago and ends about 12 000 years ago, and is overlain by younger Early Holocene deposits. At the core of this feature they found a set of Human remains identified as 'Cluster 1), which lie on top of an ash layer 10-15 cm thick, and roughly 2.5 m by 1.5 m in extent. Below this are a series of deeper lenses of consolidated ashes, charcoal, and rubified sediment, together referred to as the 'Lower Ash', which are interpreted as evidence for a series of consecutive burn events at the same location.
The Cluster 1 remains sit on top of a layer of incompletely combusted charcoal, and are in turn overlain by several more stratified lenses of ash and rubified sediment. A second set of remains was identified to the northeast of Cluster 1 and 5-10 cm deeper. These were identified as Cluster 2, but appear to be a part of the same individual which became detached during the cremation event.
Plan view of the exposed ash complex, showing the large spatial extent. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Twenty radiocarbon dates were obtained from the core pyre and larger ash feature, providing a chronology for the site. Dates obtained below the core feature begin around 12 699 years before the present, with the latest coming from 9918 years before the present. Layers of ash above the core feature produced dates ranging from 9540 to 9454 years before the present, while a layer of ash on the eastern excavation wall was dated to between 9538 and 9455 years before the present. A Land Snail bead from a layer immediately above the core combustion event provided a date of between 9537 and 9441 years before the present, and is taken as evidence of this layer being covered over quickly by non-combustion sediments. Another large combustion event was indicated by a stratigraphically higher layer of ash, which produced a date of between 9452 and 9142 years before the present, i.e. less than 400 years after the core event, although this layer produced no Human remains. Above this were further layers of non-combustion deposits dating from between less than 9403 and 9031 years before the present.
Spatial relationships of dated materials, samples, and human remains. HOR-1 excavations in profile (A) and plan (B) views showing positions of dated materials and adult cremated remains with different degrees of certainty (LH indicates 'likely human' based on size, texture, and preservation, but not morphologically diagnostic). (C) shows phytolith (green) and micromorphology (white boxes) sample positions. Thick blue line shows how the profiles correspond in each view. C1 indicates Cluster 1 and C2 indicates Cluster 2. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Phytoliths are produced by plants as a way of handling silica absorbed with water from the soil. Most plants produce phytoliths to some extent, but Monocotyledons, such as Grasses and Palms, which utilise phytoliths both as structural support and a defence against herbivores (silica phytoliths quickly wear down the teeth of animals which lack specific adaptations to deal with them), produce phytoliths which can often be used to identify the maker to genus or even species level. Phytoliths recovered from the Hora 1 pyre deposits imply that the majority of the ash was generated by the burning of wood, but that non-woody plant fibres were also present.
Sediments and ash layers of the pyre deposit. (A) view southwest of the feature 50 cm south of Cluster 1 of the remains. In both (A) and (B) black arrows indicate the top of micromorphology sample MALAPP 834 and white arrows show the distal radius from Cluster 1 in situ. Dashed box is the profile in (C), which shows layered ash with flecks of charcoal overlying rubified sediment. Distinct root and termite disturbances are visible crossing the boundaries of the intact ash layers. The brownish (grey when dry) sediment above and below is also ash-rich but more mixed (homogenised) and darker due to a higher content of finely comminuted organic material and microcharcoal. The sediments were dampened with a mist of water prior to taking the photos and image levels were adjusted to emphasise colour differences. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
These pyre deposits comprise a series of laminated ash layers extending horizontally for more than a metre, and containing ash, charcoal, rubified sediments, and Human remains. These deposits have been penetrated by insect burrows and/or plant root tunnels in places, presumably before the ash layers became cemented. Examination of the rubified sediments suggests that these contain fragments of baked clay which probably originated from structures built on trees by termites, suggesting that deadwood was collected to build the pyre(s). Also present were carbonised fragments of the Bracket Fungus Ganoderma.
Thin section of sample 834. Sample 834 was collected from the pyre, about 1m away from the Hora 3 remains (A). One thin section was selected from the small block sample (B) with reddish disturbed sediments in the lower part, and bright ashes in the top (C). Termite galleries and shelter tubes are very common in woodland areas, especially on deadwood, which presents ready-for-use fuel and was likely preferentially selected to build the pyre (D); (E) displays the clear boundary between compact laminated ashes (lower half of photomicrograph) and mixed ashy sediment on top, which are mixed with sandy clay soil aggregates. A very coarse sand fragment (feldspar) in the lower right likely represents roof spall; (F) A closer view of wavy laminated ash topped by sandy ash; Wavy layers of intact ashes (grey) and elongate, sickle-shaped clay aggregates (orange, red), possibly resulting from termite shelter tubes on tree branches (G); The clear lower contact of the compacted ash is characterised by a sudden increase of sand in the underlying ashy sediment (H); Phosphatic ashes indicate some mineral alterations and weathering of the ashes (I); Termite channels, fortified by well-sorted sandy clay, run through the lower part of the sample and contain burned organic matter (J); Articulated ash fragment in compacted ash (K); The sediment consists of a mix of fire residues, clay aggregates, and sand (L). Flora Schilt in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026). The ash deposits generally contain fewer artefacts (such as flakes from toolmaking) than non-ash deposits, probably relating to the fact that these were laid down much more rapidly. However, the Human-remains-containing core layer contains many more such objects, suggesting that they were deliberately included within the pyre, possibly for symbolic reasons.
Unifacial points and cores from square E11-a core pyre ash contexts. (B) and (F) Unmodified points; (D), (E), (G), (H), (I), and (J) broken point fragments (dashed red line shows breaks); (A), (C), (E), and (D) point showing unifacial retouch; (H) point fragment showing basal tang. Red stars indicate point areas with possible residue preservation. Justin Pargeter in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026). A total of 170 Human bone fragments were recovered from the pyre area. Of these, 112 could be clearly identified as specific parts of the Human skeleton, with the remaining 18 identified as 'likely human' on the basis of their size, texture, and preservation. The majority of these bone fragments (160) were recovered within the ash feature, with 152 found within the core feature. Of the elements which could definitely be identified as Human, 97 could be assigned to a specific element, with 90 of these being long bone (i.e. arm or leg) fragments. Other fragments from the core pyre include partial left and right calcanei, an unsided patella, the lower right articular facet of a lumbar vertebra, and four phalanges. All are consistent with a single individual.
Skeletal inventory and thermal alteration colour changes. Preserved skeletal elements and changes in bone coloration in relation to temperature and fire exposure. Additional fragments not shown in the figure: an unsided patella, the lower right articular facet of a lumbar vertebra, and unidentified long bone fragments. Jessica Cerezo-Román in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Analysis of the Hora 3 skeleton suggests that this individual was a female aged between 18 and 60. The individual is presumed to be an adult on the basis that it appears to be skeletally mature, with the distal femur and radius having fused. The articular margin of the distal femoral epiphysis showed marginal lipping, which may indicate the presence of a mild degenerative disease, giving the upper age estimate. No other potential age-markers were preserved. Since it was impossible to recover DNA from the burned and fragmented remains, sex was estimated using overall small size and gracility and the vertical diameter of both preserved femoral heads. On the basis of the diameter of the femora, the individual is estimated to have been between 145 and 150 cm tall in life (about 5 feet). Based upon the maximum and minimum midshaft diameters of the right humerus and femur, Hora 3 it thought to have been less mobile than most modern Southern African hunter gatherers, and more accustomed to manual labour.
(Top) Right distal humerus with cemented/encrusted termite tubes. (Bottom) Cemented elements that include the left proximal femur, a radius shaft, a tibia shaft, and an unidentifiable long-bone shaft. Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
About 585 g of material thought to be derived from the skeleton of Hora 3 was recovered. This is notably less than is typically produced by a Human cremation, which is usually more than 1500 g. Notably, no head elements were found within the core pyre area, although a fragment of a sphenoid (the base of the skull) was found within the larger ash feature. Fragments of cranium, and in particular teeth, are usually among the most easily preserved and identified elements in cremations, and it is surprising not to have found any such fragments, given that sediment and ash removed from the site were wet sieved to 1 mm.
All of the skeletal remains show transverse, curved-transverse, and longitudinal cracks, which are typical for the burning of a fleshed corpse, but none show signs of the checking pattern fractures which are often seen when dry remains are burned. Most fragments were grey to black, with some brown, bluish-white, and white hues. Fragments from closest to the torso were typically the most blackened and charred, while more distal elements were grey or white - which indicates more exposure to flame in areas which would have been covered by less flesh. Many elements are white on their external surface, while internal surfaces are grey, which implies these elements were intact when the burning occurred. These colours suggest that the temperature to which the distal elements were exposed exceeded 500°C, while elements closer to the torso typically reached maximum temperatures lower than 500°C. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy is sensitive to low temperature heating of bone, which often does not involve recrystallisation, and therefore can provide an accurate palaeothermometer for low temperature cremations. Four white/grey fragments from Hora 3 were analysed in this way, with all producing spectral peaks indicative of heating to over 500°C.
Although the body of Hora 3 shows signs of having been manipulated after the cremation, many of the recovered fragments were recovered together, covered in ash, and in some cases cemented together. This includes a right distal humerus and right proximal radius cemented together along with long bone fragments and a possible metacarpal fragment. This appears to show that intact joints were present at the time of final disposal of the remains. Many of the bone surfaces are covered by calcium carbonate, with none of the recovered Human bones showing more than 50% exposure. Nevertheless, eight of the bones showed stone tool marks consistent with defleshing, while none showed any signs of having been scavenged by carnivores.
Bone modifications made with stone tools. Bone surface modifications made with stone tools. (A), (B), (C), (D), and (G) are cut marks. (E) is a percussion mark. (F) is an indeterminate mark made with a sharp object. (B) to (G) show the variable bone colours and superficial calcination with carbonisation at the interior. (C) shows the minor 'skin' of calcium carbonate overlying the marks. (G) shows remaining adhering ash. (B) to (G) show two aspects of the fragment, with close-ups of the modifications in the boxed area. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Cerezo-Román et al. reconstruct a sequence of events in which people began using the HOR-1 as a habitation site about 21 000 years ago. The earliest recorded burials at the site occurred 16 000 and 14 000 years ago, both being infants. Small ash features consistent with campfires appear around the end of the Pleistocene, with larger pyres appearing by 10 240 years before the present.
Geology of HOR-1 rock shelter.(A) Pinkish and gray walls of the rock shelter at the site location. (B) Exfoliating bedrock higher above the excavation trench. (C) Example of spheroidal exfoliation of the bedrock near the rock shelter. Flora Schilt in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Some time between 9540 and 9454, a pyre comprising at least 30 kg of deadwood and grass, with some hairy leaves from herbaceous plants, was assembled, something which would have represented a significant investment of time and effort by the local community. The body of a small, probably female, adult individual was then burned on this pyre, probably within a few days of their death. The distribution of the bones, particularly those of the arms and legs, suggests that this individual was placed on this pyre in a flexed or pugilistic position (i.e. with the knees and elbows brought in close to the torso). Cut marks on some of the bones show signs of defleshing, although the preservation of the bones and some joints suggests that the flesh of the body (or some other covering) was present at the time of burning. It is likely that the skull was removed before the burning, since neither scavengers nor Early Holocene hunter gatherers seem likely to have been able to remove all of the fragments which would have been produced by burning a skull, while leaving other elements of the skeleton in situ. The ritual removal of skulls, and other body parts, has been documented in a range of modern African populations, but never at a site of such antiquity.
Spatial locations of femora and right tibia fragments. Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
The fire achieved was able to reach temperatures above 500°C, although this doesn't appear to have been consistent, and the lamination of the deposits suggests that the fire-makers continued to add fuel to the pyre for some time. The detachment of Cluster 2 from Cluster 1, and the greater degree of burning seen on Cluster 1, may indicate that the body was manipulated during the cremation process to detach parts of it. Knapped material appears to have been added to the pyre, either at the outset or during the process, possibly in association with other funerary objects. Multiple further fires were lit at the same site over the next few hundred years, although no further cremations appear to have occurred.
Reconstruction of the cremation ritual. Sequence of events leading to the formation of the cremation feature at HOR-1. (A) Site location at an inselberg, a natural monument. (B) A large quantity of wood was collected to construct the pyre, suggesting communal labor. (C) Cutmarks on bone show parts of the body were defleshed. (D) Human remains display black coloration and curved transverse fractures, indicating some moisture in the remains. (E) The pyre and body at Cluster 1 were actively disturbed during burning, creating Cluster 2. (F) High temperatures were maintained by attendees adding additional fuel. (G) Convergent points are uniquely associated with the cremation. (H) Bipolar reduction dominates a lithic assemblage that occurs in higher concentrations with the remains than in the rest of the ash feature. (I) The presence of carbonised Ganoderma and the remnants of termite tunnels indicates the use of deadwood as the primary fuel. (J) The absence of cranial and dental remains suggests these may have been collected and removed. (K) Multiple fires were relit atop the original pyre location within communal memory. Patrick Fahey in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).
Evidence of cremation among African hunter-gatherer populations is extremely rare in the archaeological record, and has not previously been found south of the Sahara. The oldest previously documented example come from the Nabta Playa site in southern Egypt, where a single individual appears to have been burned between 7800 and 7300 years ago (i.e. at least 1300 years before the earliest date for the Nabta Playa stone circle), and this has been interpreted as a 'burned inhumation' rather than a true cremation, possibly caused by the accidental ignition of material placed within the grave. Burned Human remains, possibly as much as 7000 years old, have also been recovered from an ancient midden near Lake Besaka in Ethiopia, although again this does not represent an in situ pyre like that seen at Hora, and again may not represent an intentional burning. The previous oldest known intentional cremations from Africa are associated with Neolithic Elmenteitan pastoralists in Kenya, about 3300 years ago.
A open-air, pyre cremation such as that seen at Hora requires a significant investment in time and labour by the local population, which may be why the practice is so rare among hunter-gatherer populations. In an enclosed furnace, a Human corpse can be burned in about two hours, but open air cremations require considerably longer, during which time the temperature must be maintained, typically by adding more fuel. Nevertheless, such a cremation would be a notable community event, particularly if, as seems to have been the case at Hora, parts of the body were removed during the process for ritual disposal elsewhere.
While the Hora site only records a single event, which seems to have been highly unusual in nature, it adds to a growing picture of a culturally diverse tropical African hunter-gatherer population in the Early Holocene, displacing an earlier impression that these peoples were likely to have been culturally homogeneous, even over great distances and long periods of time. The people at Hora did not erect megaliths or other architectural features. Nevertheless, they appear to have utilised chosen a site of natural prominence to carry out a significant mortuary ritual, a site which appears to have been utilised repeatedly over an extended period of time (at least 16 000 years), albeit with changing rituals during that time.
Evidence for evolving social cooperation and complexity has been recorded from many ancient hunter-gatherer populations around the world, although until now this has largely been absent from Africa. The Hora Rockshelter in Northern Malawi records a population showing both a diversity of behaviour and the ability to stage large events which would have required the investment of time and effort by many individuals. This appears to have been carried over multiple generations, with repeated fires being lit, including at least one subsequent major pyre event, suggesting a communal memory in which the significance of the location was maintained over many generations.
Cerezo-Román et al. conclude that around 9500 years ago the remains of an adult female were burned on a substantial pyre at the Hora Rocksheter in Northern Malawi. This is the oldest known pyre cremation in Africa, and the oldest known adult pyre cremation in the world. The fire appears to have been one of a sequence of fires at the same location, which persisted for centuries after the cremation event, signifying the importance of the site to the population. This site demonstrates the emergence of complex funerary rights, communal projects involving large numbers of people, and the recognition of certain sites as culturally significant long before the emergence of agriculture and organised food production, challenging previous conceptions about the extent to which community co-operation occurred among ancient hunter-gatherer populations in tropical Africa.
See also...
Plate boundaries and movements beneath southern Pakistan, Iran and the Arabian Sea. University of Southampton.
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