BIOLOGY

What is Biology?

It is a branch of Science which involve the study of form and function of living things and their
interrelationships with the environment.
 CELL PROCESSES
What is a cell?
It is the basic unit of life from which all living things are built. Each cell is capable carrying out
life [Link] things consisting of one cell are called unicellular organisms. Those
consisting many cells are called multicellular organisms.

Types of cells
1. Eukaryotic-these are organisms containing membrane bound organelles. They have a well
defined nucleus, with cytoplasm e.g plant and animal cells
2. Prokaryotes- do not have any membrane bound organelles. They have no defined nucleus e.g
bacteria

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Structure of an animal cell

 Structure of plant cell

STRUCTURE PROPERTIES FUNCTIONS

Cell membrane 2 lipid layer with one Controls the movement of
protein layer sandwiched in substances in and out of a
between cell./Selects substances
It is selectively permeable entering & leaving the cell
Nucleus Contains genetic material Control all chemical
(chromosomes) reactions taking place in a
cell/Regulates cellular
activities
Cytoplasm Contains water & dissolved Where biochemical reaction
substances e.g. glucose, take place eg
minerals, vitamins proteinsynthesis,
Contain cell organelles eg photosynthesis, respiration
ribosomes, chloroplasts,
mitochondria
Ribosome Small grains found Responsible for protein
scattered in the cytoplasm, formation/site for protein
some may be attached to synthesis
endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondrion Surrounded by 2 Where energy is released by
membranes, inner the process of aerobic
membrane has folds respiration
Cell wall Made of a carbohydrate Protects cell against
called cellulose. mechanical damage & gives
It is freely/fully permeable plant a definate shape
 vacuole Has concentrated solution Stores the cell sap
made of salts, glucose
It is selectively permeable

SPECIALIZED CELLS
These are cells which have stopped growing, have a definite shape and perform one
specific function.
Examples of specialized cells.

Cell Function Relationship between

structure & Function.
1. Red Blood Cells Responsible for - Has a biconcave structure
(Erythrocytes) transporting O2 that helps it to have a large
surface area to absorb
oxygen
- Has a spongy cytoplasm
that helps it to compress
itself in blood vessels with
small lumen
- Absence of nucleus
increases space for
transportation of O2
- Presence of haemoglobin
that binds to O2 and carry it
as an unstable compound
called oxyhaemoglobin to
respiring cells
2. Muscle cell - Long & have numerous
It moves bones in protein fibres in the
different directions cytoplasm;fibre helps to
(contract / relax to shorten the cell when there
help move is energy
structures) - Can contract & relax in
order to move parts
3. Sperm cell - Has streamlined head to
Fuse with ovum to enable it to move towards
from a zygote ovum with less friction

- Has a tail to help it swim

towards the ovum.

-have a lot of mitochondria

to release energy by the
process of respiration for
the cell to move

4. Ovum - It has a large food store to

Fuse with sperm provide the zygote with
to from a zygote nourishment before
implantation

5. White Blood Cells

(Leucocytes are two types;
Phagocytes & Lymphocytes)

Phagocytes – - Phagocytes have a lobed

engulf & digest nucleus, which enable them
pathogens e.g to be polymorphs; they can
Bacteria change shape of cytoplasm

- Have Granular cytoplasm

has small particles with
enzymes that are released
during infection

Lymphocytes – -Have a large nucleus

produce -They can be stored the
chemicals called lymph nodes ; memory
antibodies that cells, and divide rapidly in
attack antigens of response to the invasion of
foreign the same antigen.
substances
6. Root hair cell - Absorb water - Large number of
and mineral ions mitochondria to release
(salts) from the energy needed for active
soil transport of ions
-has a finger-like projection
- anchor the plant which increase its surface
firmly to the area for absorption
ground. - Has a finger-like projection
that enables to penetrate
tightly packed soil particles
- Have Large concentrated
sap vacuole which ensures
water uptake through
osmosis

7. Xylem cells - Transport water - Has dead hollow tube

& dissolved without cytoplasm to allow
minerals from the free flow of water and
roots to top part of mineral ions
a plant - Walls are lignified; coated
with a water proof and
- Supports the strong substance called
plant against lignin; to withstand water
mechanical pressure
damage - cylindrical cells are
attached end to end form a
xylem vessel to allow for
flow of water and mineral
ion from one cell to the
other until the reach the
leaves

8. Nerve Cell (neuron) Transmits nerve - Have very long fibres

impulses which connect distant parts
(messages) of the body
around the body - Fibres are coated with
sheath to prevent loss &
distortion of messages.
- Chemical reactions cause
the impulses to travel along
the fibre
10. Guard cells To regulate the - Crescent shaped to form a
opening & closing stomatal pore when turgid
of stomata - Always paired to form a
stomata
- Are able to change shape
to close or open depending
on whether its day or night.

11. Palisade cell It is a site where -they have a lot of

most chloroplast to produce more
photosynthesis chlorophyll for maximum
take place absorption of sunlight
-they are found on the
upper part of the leaf to
maximize the absorption of
light

12. Phloem Transport organic -Has no organells so

products of organic products can flow
photosynthesis i.e easily
sucrose and -Has a thin cytoplasm so
amino acids that the cell remain alive for
transport of organic product
of photosynthesis
-Has companion cells which
carries out life processes of
the sieve tubes/phloem
-it has pores on the sieve
plates to allow for organic
products of photosynthesis
to pass from one cell o the
next
13. Ciliated cell They filter the air -They have cilia which
inhaled, removing continuously move to and
dust and fro to remove mucus which
pathogens. trapped dust and pathogens
-next to ciliated cells are
goblet cells which produce
mucus to trap dust and
pathogens

Cell Organization

Cells are organized into tissues, organs, systems and ultimately an organism (plant /
animal)

 A Cell; is the basic unit of life

 A Tissue; is a group of similar cells carrying out the same function. E.g. xylems cells
make xylem tissue
 An Organ; is a group of tissues which work together to perform a particular function.
E.g. the heart is organ made of nerve tissue, muscle tissue, epithelial tissue etc.
 A System; is a group of organs which work together to perform a particular function.
E.g. the digestive system is made of; stomach, mouth, intestine, liver etc
 An Organism; Is a group of different systems which come together to form a living
thing e.g. Human beings are made of; nervous, skeletal, circulatory, digestive,
muscle systems etc.

Movement of Substances in & out of cells

There are three processes that are involved in the movement of substances in & out
cells
➢ Diffusion
➢ Osmosis
➢ Active transport

1. Diffusion;
It is the random movement of particles from their region of their higher concentration to
their region low concentration down a concentration gradient until they are evenly
distributed.

a) Diffusion in gases
The spread of perfume particles (or air freshener) from the nozzle of the spray can to fill
up the room occurs through diffusion.
b) Diffusion in liquids
The spread of potassium permanganate from the bottom of a beaker to the top is by
diffusion.

Diffusion is affected by;

I. Changes in temperature;
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, hence
particles will move faster leading to an increase in the rate of diffusion
II. Particle size
Small particles dissolve faster because they are less dense & have a large surface
area
hence can diffuse rapidly from one end to the other.
III. Concentration gradient
This is the difference in the amount of particles between two adjacent areas.
Particles move faster when the difference in the amount of particles is large. The
rate of diffusion diminishes as the concentration gradient reduces.

2. Osmosis;
It is the random movement of free water molecules from their region of higher
concentration to their region of lower concentration along/down the concentration
gradient through a partially / selectively permeable membrane.

Similarities between Osmosis & Diffusion

▪ Particles are moving down the concentration gradient
▪ Both processes are passive, no energy is used

Differences between Osmosis & Diffusion

OSMOSIS DIFFUSION
only water molecules are moved Occurs in all states of matter (any
particle is moved)
Materials are moved across a barrier ,a Does not require a barrier
partially permeable membrane required
3. Active Transport
This is the movement of materials from their region of low concentration to their region
of high concentration against the concentration gradient using energy from respiration.
Substances are moved through the aid of protein carrier molecules and a barrier is not
important.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT

❖ Active transport requires energy whereas passive transport does not require
energy
❖ For active transport particles move against their concentration gradient whereas
for passive transport, particles move down the concentration gradient
❖ For active transport particles are carried by a carrier molecule than in passive
transport
❖ Active transport requires a living membrane unlike in passive transport

OSMOSIS AND CELLS

A cell can be exposed to the following conditions;

❖ Immersed in pure (distilled) water / dilute solution/solution with a high
concentration of water molecules/ a solution with a high water
potential/hypertonic solution
❖ Immersed in a concentrated solution/a solution with a low concentration of water
molecules/ a solution with a low water potential/ hypotonic solution
❖ A solution which has the same concentration as that of the cell/ isotonic solution
??? Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in a beaker with distilled water
/ dilute solution

Ans; There are more free water molecules in beaker than in the cell, so the free water
molecules move/ there will be an influx of water from the beaker into the cell, passing
through a selectively permeable membrane by the process of osmosis. The cell sap
volume increase and pushes outwards on the cell wall, as a result turgor pressure
builds inside the cell, causing it to stretch until it touches the cell wall. When this
happens the cell is said to be Turgid.

??? Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

Ans; There are more free water molecules in the cell than in the beaker so the water
molecules will move out of the cell crossing a selectively permeable membrane by the
process of osmosis. The vacuole shrinks, the outflux of water molecules will lead to a
decrease in turgor pressure in the cell. The cell will become flaccid and pull the
cytoplasm away from the cell wall. When this happens the cell is said to be
plasmolysed.
??? Explain what happens when an animal cell is immersed in pure water / dilute
solution

Ans; There are more free water molecules in the beaker than in the cell so water
molecules will move into the cell crossing a selectively permeable membrane by the
procee of osmosis and due to build up of pressure the cell membrane will burst ,since
the animal cell has no cell wall to limit the stretching of the cell membrane.

??? Explain what happens when an animal cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

Ans; There more free water molecules in the cell than in the solution, so free water
molecules move from the cell in to the solution, crossing a selectively permeable
membrane by the process of osmosis, due to outflux of water by osmosis, the cell will
decrease in size and when this happens the cell is said to be shrunken.

???What happens when a cell is put in an isotonic solution?

Ans; There will an equal concentration of water molecules in the cell and in the solution,
therefore the is no net movement of water molecules. The size of the cell will remain the
same.
ACTIVITY; The Effect of various sugar concentrations on potato tissue

Apparatus & materials

 5 different solns; 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% and 60%
 5 petri dishes
 Cork borer
 White tile
 Scalpel
 30cm ruler
 Large potato
 25ml measuring cylinder

Procedure
- Label the petri dishes A to E.
- Place equal volumes (10ml) of the sugar concentrations in the petri dishes as; 0% in petri dish A
5% in dish B, 15% in dish C etc.
- Prepare 5 equal sized e.g. (40mm) potato slices by boring the potato using a cork borer
- Place one potato slice in each petri dish.
- Leave the potato slices in the solutions for 30 – 60 minutes. The remove the slices & blot them with
a paper tissue.
- Measure the final lengths of the slices and record the results as follows

Sugar soln Initial length Final length Change in Percentage

length change in
length
Practice 0%
Questions on the activity above;
➢ Plot a graph of sugar concentration against change in length
5%
➢ From
15% the graph, work out the concentration of the potato tubes
25%
60%

➢ At what concentration would the concentration of the sap vacuole of the potato
equal that of the surrounding sugar solution?
➢ What process is responsible for the change in length of the potato tubes?
➢ What is the formula for calculating the change in length of the potato tubes?
➢ What else can be measured to find out the effect of concentration on the potato
slices?