BIOLOGY CHRONICLES

UNIT 1 – Cell Organization

1. Magnification:
- 1-pico = 10^-12
- 1-nano = 10^-9
- 1-micro = 10^-6
- 1-milli = 10^-3
- 1-centi = 10^-2
- 1-deci = 10^-1
- 1-kilo = 10^3
- 1-mega = 10^6
- 1-giga = 10^9
- 1-tera = 10^12

- Real * Magnification = Image

2. Organelles:
- Functions for animal cells –
1. Cell membrane – Controls passage of substances in/out of cell.
2. Cytoplasm – Where most chemical reactions occur.
3. Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis.
4. Mitochondria – Releases energy in aerobic respiration.
5. Nucleus – Controls activities of cell.

- Functions for plant cells –

1. Cell wall – Strengthens cell from cellulose.
2. Cell membrane – Controls passage of substances in/out of cell.
3. Cytoplasm – Where most chemical reactions occur.
4. Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis.
5. Mitochondria – Releases energy in aerobic respiration.
6. Chloroplasts – Absorb light energy to make food.
7. Permanent vacuole – Contains cell sap.
8. Nucleus – Controls activities of cell.

3. Cells:
- Bacterial cell structure – Contains cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, genes not in
distinct nucleus, plasmids
- Plasmids – Extra circular genes
 - Specialized cells – Adapted to perform specific function.

- Flagella – Increases rate of movement of cell for fertilization.

- Lots of mitochondria – Release large amount of energy to increase rate of movement
for fertilization.

- Cytoplasmic extension – Provides large surface area to increase rate of water/mineral

ion absorption.
- Large permanent vacuole – Maximize water absorption.
- Lots of mitochondria – Release more amount of energy in aerobic respiration to
increase rate of active transport, increasing rate of mineral ion absorption.

4. Organization:
- Large multicellular organisms – During development, cells differentiate to perform
different/specific functions to develop systems to exchange necessary materials
between organism/surroundings.
- Small single-celled organism – High surface area to volume ratio, so use cell
membrane to exchange necessary materials.
- Increasing size/complexity of organism – Increases difficulty of exchanging necessary
materials.

- Tissues – Made up of cells with similar structure/function.

- Organs – Made up of tissues that may contain several.
- Organ system – Made up of organs to perform specific function.

- Epithelial tissue – Covers some parts of body.

- Example – Skin
- Muscular tissue – Contracts to bring about movement.
- Example – Bicep
- Glandular tissue – Produces enzymes/hormones.
- Example – Stomach

- Stomach –
1. Epithelial – Cover outside/inside of stomach.
2. Muscular – Contracts to allow contents to move through digestive system.
3. Glandular – Produce digestive juices.

- Digestive system –
1. Salivary glands – Has glandular tissue that produce amylase to catalyze breakdown of
starch into simple sugars.
2. Stomach – Has muscular tissue that contract to bring about movement to mix food
with enzymes for digestion to occur/move contents through digestive system. Has
glandular tissue that produce hydrochloric acid for enzymes in stomach to work most
effectively in optimum pH.
3. Pancreas – Has glandular tissue that produces enzymes that catalyze breakdown of
large/insoluble molecules into smaller/soluble molecules.
 4. Liver – Has glandular tissue that produce bile to allow enzymes in small intestine to
work most effectively in optimum pH.
5. Small intestine – Has glandular tissue that produce enzymes to catalyze breakdown
of large/insoluble molecules into smaller/soluble molecules for digestion to occur.
Has epithelial tissue that cover inside of wall to absorb soluble food products into
bloodstream.
6. Large intestine – Has epithelial tissue inside of wall to absorb water from indigestible
food products to produce feces.

- Leaf –
1. Epidermal tissue – Covers plant.
2. Palisade mesophyll – Performs photosynthesis.
3. Spongy mesophyll – Contains air spaces to facilitate diffusion of gases.
4. Stoma – Site of gas exchange.
5. Guard cell – Protects stoma.

- Xylem – Transports water/mineral ions from roots to leaves.

1. Lignin – Strengthens to withstand water pressure.
2. No cytoplasm – No need for chemical reactions needed.
3. No end walls – Allows long tube of water/mineral ions to flow easily.

- Phloem – Transports dissolved sugars from leaves to rest of plant.

1. Companion cells – Lots of mitochondria to release energy in aerobic respiration to
transport large amounts of dissolved sugars.
2. No nucleus – Maximize space to allow flow of dissolved sugars.
3. Pores in end walls – Allow dissolved sugars to move from cell to cell.

- In roots – X shape is xylem/outside is phloem

- In leaves – Inside is xylem/outside is phloem

5. Transport:
- Diffusion – Spreading of particles of substance in solution/gas resulting in net
movement from area of higher to lower concentration.
- Steeper concentration gradient – Increases difference on concentration, so increases
rate of diffusion.
- Higher temperature – More kinetic energy so increases rate of diffusion.

- Maximizing rate of absorption:

1. Large surface area– Folded membranes for large surface area to increase rate of
diffusion.
2. Thin– One cell thick to provide short diffusion pathway to increase rate of
diffusion.
3. Efficient blood supply – To maintain steep concentration gradient.
4. Ventilation – To maintain steep concentration gradient.

- Osmosis – Diffusion of water from dilute to more concentrated solution through

selectively permeable membrane that allows passage of water molecules.
 - Hypertonic solution – More water in cell than out, water moves out by osmosis.
- Hypotonic solution – Lesser water inside the cell than out, water moves in by
osmosis.
- Isotonic solution – Equilibrium, thus no net movement by osmosis.

Animal cells –
1. Hypertonic solution – Shrinks as water diffuses out by osmosis.
2. Hypotonic solution – Swells/bursts as water diffuses in by osmosis.
3. Isotonic solution – No change as no net movement.

- Plant cell –
1. Hypertonic solution – Cell becomes plasmolyzed/permanent vacuole gets smaller,
decreasing turgor pressure as water moves out by osmosis.
2. Hypotonic solution – Cell becomes turgid/permanent vacuole gets larger, increasing
turgor pressure as water moves in by osmosis vacuole.
3. Isotonic solution – No change as no net movement.

- Active transport – Absorption of substances against concentration gradient that

requires mitochondria to release energy in aerobic respiration.
- Plants – Via root hair cell, use active transport to absorb mineral ions from dilute to
more concentrated solution.
- Intestine/kidney tubules – Use active transport to absorb sugars from area of lower
to higher concentration.

1. Use cork borer to cut 5 potato cylinders to equal diameter.

2. Use knife to trim length of 5 potato cylinders to equal length/any potato skin.
3. Accurately measure each of their masses.
4. Accurately measure each of their lengths.
5. Record measurements in table.

- Hazards – Cork borer is sharp, mass balance uses electricity

- Risks – Cork borer could cut finger, water getting into mass balance could cause
electrocution.
- Precautions – Push cork-borer on the potato against a tile. Keep water away from
mass balance.

- Potato weighs more than expected, leaving water on mass balance – Not blotted.
- Potato weighs less than expected – Not submerged properly.
- Few anomalous results, no pattern – Not measured properly.

- The point where the line crosses the x-axis is the original concentration inside the
potato as there is no change in mass.

UNIT 2 – Bioenergetics

1. Photosynthesis:
 - Photosynthesis –
1. Chloroplasts of plant cell/algae contain chlorophyl to absorb light.
2. Light converts carbon dioxide from air/water from soil to glucose/oxygen as by-
product.
- Word equation – Carbon dioxide + water -> (under light) glucose + oxygen
- Chemical equation – 6CO2 + 6H20 -> (under light) C6H12O6 + 6O2

- Limiting factors – Low temperature, low light intensity, low carbon dioxide.
- Line is stagnant – Once the line plateaus, factor is no longer limiting rate of
photosynthesis, so is likely something else.

- Glucose – Used as source of chemical energy, converted into larger molecules for
storage, later use.
- Source of chemical energy example – Used in aerobic respiration.
- Storage examples – Converted into insoluble starch for storage/later use/used to
produce fat/oil for storage/later use.
- Use examples – Used to produce cellulose/produce proteins

- Plant cells – Use nitrate ions absorbed from soil to produce proteins.

2. Photosynthesis practical:
1. Clamp boiling tube to clamp stand 10cm away from LED lamp
2. Fill boiling tube with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution.
3. Gently push 10cm aquatic plant with cut end facing upwards into boiling tube
with glass rod.
4. Leave boiling tube for 5 minutes.
5. Start stop watch to count number of bubbles produced in 1 minute.
6. Repeat steps thrice, each time increasing distance between boiling tube/LED
lamp by 10cm.
7. Repeat experiment thrice to calculate mean number of bubbles produced in 1
minute for each distance.
8. Plot distance on x-axis/mean number of bubbles produced in 1 minute.

- Control variable –
1. Concentration of hydrogen carbonate solution
2. Length of plant

- Independent variable – Distance from LED lamp.

- Dependent variable – number of bubbles produced in 1 minute.
- Control variable –
- Safety precaution –
1. Ensure hands are dry when handling LED lamp.
2. Avoid touching LED lamp bulb incase its hot.
3. Ensure water stays away from power supply of LED lamp.

3. Circulation:
 - Circulation system – Contains heart, blood vessels, blood to transport substances
from where they enter body to cells/from cells to where they exit body.
- Double circulatory system – 1 circulation system is for lungs/1 circulation system is
for rest of organs of body.

1. Vena cava carries deoxygenated blood into right atrium.

2. Right atrium contracts/forces deoxygenated blood into right ventricle.
3. Right ventricle contracts/forces deoxygenated blood into pulmonary artery.
4. Pulmonary artery carries out deoxygenated blood lungs to be oxygenated via gas
exchange.
5. Pulmonary vein carries out oxygenated blood into left atrium.
6. Left atrium contracts/forces oxygenated blood into left ventricle
7. Left ventricle contracts/forces oxygenated blood into aorta
8. Aorta carries out oxygenated blood to rest of body at high pressure.

- Heart – Organ where wall is made of muscle tissue that pumps blood to rest of body
in double circulatory system.
- Valves – Prevent backflow
- Coronary artery – Supplies oxygenated blood to heart.
- Septum – Thick wall to prevent oxygenated/deoxygenated blood from mixing.
- Thicker wall – Left ventricle has to contract/force oxygenated blood to rest of body at
higher pressure while right ventricle only needs to contract/force deoxygenated
blood to lungs. So thicker wall to withstand higher pressure.

- Arteries – Blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from heart.
1. Thick walls
2. Narrow lumen
3. No valves
- High blood pressure – Thick walls with muscular/elastic fibers that stretch to
withstand high blood pressure.

- Veins – Blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood to heart.

- Thin wall
- Large lumen
- Valves
- Low blood pressure – Valves to prevent backflow.

- Capillaries – Blood vessels that allow substances needed by cells in tissue move out
of blood into cells through walls of capillaries, substances produced by cells in tissue
move out of cell into blood through walls of capillaries, connects veins/arteries.
1. One-cell thick wall
2. Narrow lumen
3. No valves

4. Blood:
- Blood – Tissue that suspends plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets.
 - Plasma – Straw-colored liquid that transports substances.
1. soluble digestion products from small intestines to organs
2. CO2 from organs to lungs
3. Urea from liver to kidneys.

- Red blood cells – Bio-concave disc-shaped cells with no nucleus that transport
oxygen from lungs where hemoglobin binds with oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin to
organs where oxyhemoglobin splits into oxygen/hemoglobin.

- White-blood cell – Irregularly-shaped cells with nucleus that destroys

pathogens/form part of body’s defense system against microorganisms.

- Platelets – Small fragments of cells with no nucleus that help blood clot to site of
wound.

1. Platelets reach site of wound.

2. Stimulate enzyme-controlled reactions.
3. Changes fibrinogen to fibrin.
4. Forms network of fibers.
5. Traps blood cells to form blood clot/scab.

- Antigen – Proteins on surface of cells.

3. Digestion:
- Enzymes – Large proteins that act as biological catalysts by increasing rate of reaction
without being used up to speed up breakdown of large insoluble molecules into
smaller soluble molecules so that they’re absorbed into bloodstream through wall of
small intestine.
- Enzymes work outside body cells –
- Specialized cells in glands/lining of gut produce enzymes
- Pass out of cells into gut

- Amylase – Enzyme produced in pancreas, small intestines, salivary glands. Speeds up

breakdown of starch into simple sugars in small intestines, mouth for aerobic
respiration.
- Protease – Enzyme produced in pancreas, small intestines, stomach. Speeds up
breakdown of proteins into amino acids in small intestine, stomach for growth/repair.
- Lipase – Enzyme produced in pancreas, small intestines. Speeds up breakdown of
lipids into glycerol/fatty acids in small intestines for slow energy release.

- High temperature – When more than 45 degrees, temperature changes shape of

active site so enzyme denatures, so can no longer catalyze breakdown of large
insoluble molecules into smaller soluble molecules to be absorbed into bloodstream
through wall of small intestine.
- pH – Different enzymes work most effectively in different optimum pHs.

- Enzymes outside body cells –

 1. Produced in specialized cells in glands/lining of gut.
2. Pass out of cells into gut.
3. When they come into contact with food molecules, they catalyze breakdown of large
insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble food molecules to be absorbed into
bloodstream through wall of small intestines.

- Hydrochloric acid – Provides acidic conditions so enzymes in stomach work most

effectively.
- Bile – Emulsifies fats to increase surface area of fats for lipase to act on/neutralizes
acid added to food molecules from stomach to provide alkaline conditions for
enzymes in small intestines work most effectively.

- Stomach – Produces hydrochloric acid.

- Liver – Produces bile to store into gall bladder.
- Gall bladder – Stores bile to release into small intestine.
- Small intestines – Where insoluble starch, proteins, fats break down into soluble
digestion products to be absorbed into bloodstream of wall of small intestine.
- Large intestines – Much of water mixed with food is absorbed into bloodstream.
Remaining Indigestible food products make up bulk of feces.
- Anus – Where feces leave body.

- Enzymes increasing rate of reaction –

1. Substrate fits in active site of enzyme like lock/key as enzyme/substrate are
specific/complementary to each other.
2. This forms enzyme substrate complex
3. Reaction takes place rapidly, releasing products rapidly.
4. After catalyzing reaction, it’s ready to speed up next reaction.
- Temperature – Increases rate of reaction as enzyme/substrate move faster. This
Increases frequency of successful collisions, so enzyme substrate complex forms
more. Reaction takes place rapidly more, releasing products more.
- Different pH – When pH changes, forces that hold 3D shape of enzyme changes
shape of active site so enzyme denatures, can no longer bond to substrate.

4. Breathing:
- Respiratory system – Takes air in body so oxygen can diffuse from air into
bloodstream/takes air out of body so carbon dioxide can diffuse from bloodstream
into air.
- Structure – Lungs are in thorax protected by ribcage, separated from abdomen by
diaphragm.
- Breathing – The physical process of inhalation and exhalation of atmospheric air.
- Alveoli - The site of gas exchange between carbon dioxide in bloodstream/oxygen in
lungs.

- Inhalation –
1. Intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribcage upwards.
2. At same time diaphragm muscles contract, flattening it.
3. Both cause an increase in volume of thorax.
 4. Decreasing pressure below that of air around body, results in atmospheric air
entering lungs.

- Exhalation –
1. Intercostal muscles relax, allowing ribcage downwards.
2. At same time the diaphragm muscles relax, resuming dome shape of it.
3. Both cause a decrease in the volume of thorax
4. Increases pressure to above that of air around body, results in atmospheric air exiting
lungs.

5. Respiration:
- High temperature – When more than 45 degrees, temperature changes active site of
enzyme, so enzyme denatures, so aerobic respiration can’t occur.

- Aerobic respiration – When sufficient oxygen is reaching muscles, continuous

complete chemical breakdown of glucose in mitochondria in presence of oxygen into
carbon dioxide/water, releasing energy that’s more than that of anerobic respiration.
- Word equation Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + ENERGY
- Chemical equation – C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H20 + ENERGY

- Aerobic respiration uses–

1. For all, builds smaller molecules into bigger ones.
2. For animals, enables muscles to contract.
3. For mammals/birds, Maintains steady body temperature in cold temperatures.
4. For plants, builds sugar, nitrates, other nutrients into amino acids that build to
proteins.

- Anaerobic respiration – When insufficient oxygen is reaching muscles, incomplete

chemical breakdown of glucose in cytoplasm in absence of oxygen into lactic acid,
releasing energy lower than that of aerobic respiration. This causes buildup of lactic
acid, so oxygen debt must be repaid to oxidize lactic acid into carbon dioxide/water.
- Word equation – Glucose -> lactic acid
- Chemical equation – C6H12O6 -> 2C3H6O3

- For plants/microorganisms –
1. Word equation – Glucose -> Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
2. Chemical equation – C6H1206 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

- During exercise –
1. Body has increased demand for energy.
2. Breathing rate/depth increases to increase supply of oxygen to muscles.
3. Heart rate increases to increase blood flow to muscles, increasing rate of carbon
dioxide removal from muscles.
4. Glycogen stored in muscles is converted into glucose to increase supply of glucose to
muscles.
 - During long exercise – Buildup of lactic acid causes muscles to become fatigued, so
stop contracting efficiently, so blood flows through muscles to remove it.

6. Respiration practical:
1. Grab hand exerciser with dominant/rest it on table.
2. Start stopwatch timer
3. Squeeze hand exerciser fully 1 repetition every 3 seconds until
4. Once it’s too painful to continue, stop hand/stopwatch timer.
5. Rest for 5 minutes.
6. Repeat steps thrice, each time increasing repetitions every 3 seconds by 1.
7. Repeat experiment thrice to calculate mean time taken until too painful to continue.
8. Plot number of repetitions every 3 seconds against mean time taken until too painful
to continue.

- Independent variable – Number of repetitions every 3 seconds.

- Dependent variable – Time taken until too painful to continue.
- Control variable – Resistance of hand exerciser, sex

- Safety precautions – Handle hand exerciser carefully to avoid breaking it. Ensure
muscles aren’t overused to prevent muscle damage.

UNIT 3 – Ecology

1. Interdependence:
- Organisms – Require supply of materials from environment and other organisms to
survive/reproduce.

2. Competition:
- Plants – Compete with each other for light, space, water from soil, nutrients from
soil.
- Animals – Compete each other for food, mates, territory.

3. Adaptation:
- Organisms – Have adaptations that allow them to survive in conditions they normally
live in.
- Extremophiles – Organisms that live in extreme environment, such as containing high
salt level, high temperature, high pressure.

- Structural adaptation – Physical feature, such as shape/color.

- Behavioral adaptation – Behavior, such as migration/huddling together.
- Functional adaptation – Internal process, such as reproduction/metabolism.

4. Energy transferred in ecosystems:

- Main source of energy – Sun radiation
- Plants/algae – Transfer about 1% of incident energy from light stored in substances
that make up cells of plant for photosynthesis.
 - Biomass transferred – about 10% of biomass of each trophic level is transferred to
level above it.
- Causes – Some materials/energy are always lost in organisms waste materials/
much of energy supplied by respiration that’s needed for living processes, such as
movement, is eventually transferred to surroundings.

5. Decay with carbon cycle:

- In stable community – Processes that remove materials part of constant cycle are
balanced by processes that return materials part of constant cycle.
- Living organisms – Remove materials from environment for growth/other processes
to be returned to environment in waste materials/when living things die/decay.

- Decay process purpose – Releases substances that plants need to grow.

- Materials decay – Microorganisms digest materials.
- Microorganism optimum conditions – More active/digest materials faster in warm,
moist, aerobic conditions.

- Carbon cycle – Constant cycling of carbon.

1. Plants/algae remove carbon dioxide from environment for photosynthesis, then
carbon from carbon dioxide is used to make carbohydrates, fats, proteins to make up
body of plants/algae, then they respire to cause carbon to become carbon dioxide to
be released into atmosphere.
2. Animals eat plants/algae/other animals eat those animals, then some of carbon from
eaten bodies becomes part of fats/proteins to make up body of consumers, then
they respire to cause some of carbon to become carbon dioxide to be released into
atmosphere.
3. Animals/microorganisms feed on bodies of plants, algae, animals, then they respire
to cause carbon to become carbon dioxide to be released into atmosphere.
4. By time detritus feeders/microorganisms have digested waste products/dead bodies
of organisms in ecosystems to cycle materials as plant nutrients, all energy originally
absorbed by plants/algae has been transferred.
5. Combustion of wood/fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into atmosphere.

UNIT 4 – Organisms’ Interaction with the Environment

1. Nervous system:
- Nervous system – Allows to coordinate behavior/react to environment.
- CNS (Central Nervous System) – Made of brain/spinal cord.

- Myelin sheath – Insulates to increase speed of impulses.

- Long axon – Send impulses along long distances.

- Reflex – Automatic/rapid action that involve sensory, relay, motor neurons/ not
conscious part of brain.
- Reflex example – Pain-withdrawal
- Important for survival – Helps prevent damage to body.
1. Stimulus is detected by receptor.
 2. Sends impulse along sensory neuron to spinal cord in CNS.
3. Release of chemical along synapse between sensory neuron/relay neuron.
4. Sends impulse along relay neuron.
5. Releases chemical along synapse between relay neuron/motor neuron.
6. Sends impulse along motor neuron to effector.
7. Muscle contracts/gland secretes chemical substance.

1. Stimulus is change in environment that is detected by receptor.

2. Receptor is sensory organ that sends impulses along neurons to coordinator
3. Coordinator is brain of CNS which processes information/coordinates response that
sends impulses along neurons to effector.
4. Effector is muscle/gland that brings about response.
5. Response is action that contracts muscle/releases chemical substances.

2. Homeostasis:
- Homeostasis – Automatic control systems in body keep conditions in body relatively
constant.
- Receptors – Cells detect stimuli.
- Eyes – Has receptors that’s sensitive to light.
- Ears – Has receptors that’s sensitive to sound/changes in position to keep balance.
- Tongue – Has receptors that’s sensitive to chemicals to taste.
- Inside nose – Has receptors that’s sensitive to chemicals to smell.
- Skin – Has receptors that’s sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, temperature change.
- Brain – Has receptors that’s sensitive to temperature of blood/water concentration of
blood.
- Pancreas – Has receptors that’s sensitive to glucose concentration in blood.
- Coordination center – Receive/process information from receptors, such as
brain/spinal cord/pancreas.
- Effector – Bring about response.

- Controlled internal conditions –

1. Water content in body
2. ion content in body
3. temperature in body
4. blood glucose concentration in body.

- Temperature in body –
1. Skin has receptors sensitive to temperature change that send impulses to
thermoregulatory center which give information about skin temperature.
2. Thermoregulatory center in brain has receptors that’s sensitive to temperature of
blood flowing through brain to monitor/control body temperature.
3. When core body temperature is too high, blood vessels that supply skin capillaries
dilate to increase blood flow through capillaries, so increases energy transferred from
skin to environment/sweat glands increase release of sweat to cool body by
evaporating.
4. When core body temperature is too low, blood vessels that supply skin capillaries
constrict to decrease blood flow through capillaries, so decreases energy transferred
 from skin to environment. Muscles contract to shiver which requires respiration,
increasing transfer of energy to warm body.

- Hot temperature – Increases water loss, so more fluid intake needed via food or
water needed to balance water loss.

- Blood glucose level

1. Pancreas has receptors that’s sensitive to glucose concentration in blood to
monitor/control glucose concentration in blood.
2. If liver/muscles that stores glucose as glycogen is full, excess glucose is stored as lipid.
3. If glucose concentration in blood is too high, pancreas produces hormone insulin to
allow glucose to move from blood into cells
4. If glucose concentration in blood is too low, pancreas produces hormone glucagon to
allow glycogen to be converted into glucose/released into blood.

- Type 1 diabetes – Person’s blood glucose level is too high because pancreas doesn’t
produce enough insulin.
- Treatment – Controlled by careful diet, exercise, insulin injection
- Type 2 diabetes – Person’s blood glucose level is too high because obesity causes
body to not respond to its own insulin.
- Treatment – Controlled by careful diet, exercise, drugs that help cells respond to
insulin.

5. Behavior:
- Behavior – Action made in response to stimulus that modifies relationship between
organism/environment.

- Innate – Organism acts are not learnt but come from nerve pathways formed in
embryo development stage, such as spider building web.
- Imprinting – Animal emotionally attaches itself to large organism/parent to enable
recognition of other animals of same species in very early stage of life.
- Habituation – Animal eventually stops responding to stimulus when stimulus
repeats/nothing occurs.
- Classical conditioning – Animal learns to associate existing unconditioned reflex with
new stimulus.
- Operant conditioning – Animal repeats learns with trial/error by repeating behavior if
something good happens/stop behavior if something bad happens.
- Sniffer dogs – Humans condition captive dogs in training to locate drugs/explosives.
- Police horses – Humans condition captive horses in training to remain calm when
managing crowds.

- Sexual reproduction – Requires courtship behaviors by advertising individual’s quality

to find/select suitable mate with mating strategy.

1. Mate for life – Such as swans.

2. Mate for breeding season – Such as garden birds.
3. Several mates over lifetime – Such as lions.
4. Several mates over breeding season – Such as wild dogs.

- Parental care – Behavior that’s evolutionary strategy.

- Advantages – Increases chance of survival of offspring/increases chance of
offspringing passing on parental genes.
- Disadvantages – Takes up time/resources/make parents vulnerable to
starvation/predators.

- Visual communication – Visual signals sent to indicate mood such as hunger,

sleepiness, playfulness, aggression, danger such as black/yellow coloring for bees.
- Sound communication – Sound signals sent at different frequency range depending
on hearing range of animal to convey complex emotions, marking territory, finding
mates, warning rivals.
- Chemical communication – Chemical signals sent as smells to identify members,
indicate fertility, show dominance, in defense.

6. Infection:
- Pathogens – Microorganisms that can cause infectious diseases.
- Bacteria – Microorganism that rapidly reproduce inside body which produces toxins
to make us feel ill
- Viruses – Microorganism that rapidly reproduce inside body which live inside cells to
cause damage to body.

- White blood cell functions –

1. Ingesting pathogens called phagocytosis
2. Produce specific antibodies that destroy specific pathogens.
3. Produce antitoxins that counteract toxins released by pathogens.

- Immune system – Produces specific antibodies that destroy specific pathogens to

gain immunity from pathogen.
- Vaccination – Vaccine injects small amount of dead or inactive forms of pathogen
into body to stimulate white blood cells to produce specific antibodies that destroy
that specific pathogen to gain immunity from future infections of pathogen
- To decrease spread of pathogen – Large proportion of population should gain
immunity from pathogen.
- MMR vaccine – Protects children from measles, mumps, rubella.
- Evaluation –
1. Vaccine can prevent future infections from pathogen
2. Vaccine can be only option if infectious disease is from virus
3. Vaccine has time lag
4. Vaccine has no extra effect if person already has virus that already caused antibodies
to be produced

- Antibiotics – Specific medicine that kills specific infective bacteria inside body to help
cure bacterial disease.
- Example – Penicillin
- Benefit – Significantly decreases amount of deaths from infectious bacterial disease.
 - Disadvantage – Can’t treat viral pathogens.

- Drugs that kill viral pathogens – Difficult to develop without damaging body tissue.

- MRSA – Developed resistance to antibiotics.

- Resistant bacteria cause – Pathogens mutate to produce resistant bacteria strains.
- Increase rate of development of resistant bacteria – Inappropriate/overuse of
antibiotics.
- Development of antibiotic-resistant strains – Needs development of new antibiotics.
- Antibiotic resistance –
1. Pathogens mutate to produce new strains.
2. Antibiotics kill pathogens of non-resistant strain
3. Resistant pathogens survive/reproduce to increase population of resistant
pathogens.
4. Antibiotics/vaccinations may no longer be effective against new resistant strain of
pathogen.
5. People will not be immune to pathogen.
6. New strain will spread rapidly.

- Antibiotics are not used – To treat non-serious infections to decrease rate of

development of resistant strains.
- Non-serious infections example – Mild throat infections

7. Infection practical:
1. Using disinfectant, spray worktable then wipe it with paper towels.
2. Using wax pencil on underneath of nutrient agar plate, divide plate into 3 equal
sections, labelling each with number with dot in middle of each section, then write
your initials, date, name of bacteria on edge of plate.
3. Using antibacterial handwash, wash your hands.
4. Soak filter paper into or spread on filter paper discs different antiseptics.
5. Carefully lift lid of agar plate at angle, then using forceps, carefully put each paper
disc onto each dot.
6. Using 2 small pieces of tape, secure lid of agar plate in place.
7. Record antiseptic used in each section of agar plate onto table.
8. Incubate plate at 25 degrees Celsius for 48 hours.
9. Using ruler on center of paper disc, measure diameter of clear zone around each
paper disk then record it onto table.
10. Repeat measuring again 90 degrees to first measure then calculate mean diameter
then record onto table.

- Safety precautions – Thoroughly clean workspace/hands before/after experiment,

use aseptic techniques.

UNIT 5 – Inheritance

1. Reproduction:
 - Sexual reproduction – Fusion of male and female gametes of 2 parents causes
mixture of genetic information so there’s genetic variation in offspring.
- Asexual reproduction – No fusion of male/female gametes of 1 parent causes no
mixture of genetic information so no genetic variation in clones.
- Clones – Genetically identical offspring.

2. Cell division:
- Body cell – Divides by mitosis to produce additional cells for growth or produce
replacement cells for repair or replacement.
1. Copies of genetic material are made.
2. Cell divides once to form 2 genetically identical body cells each with 46
chromosomes.

- Mature animals – Cell division is restricted to producing replacement cells for repair
or replacement.

- Cells in reproductive organs – Divide by meiosis to produce gametes.

1. Copies of genetic material are made.
2. Cell divides twice to form 4 genetical un-identical gametes each with 23
chromosomes.

- Gametes – During fertilization, they fuse to form body cell with 46 chromosomes to
repeatedly divide by mitosis to produce additional cells for growth.

3. Cell differentiation:
- Cells – Differentiate to form different types of cells.
- Animals – Many animal cells differentiate only at early stage of life time.
- Plants – Many plant cells retain ability to differentiate throughout lifetime.

- Stem cells – Cells from human embryo or adult bone marrow that differentiate to
form different types of human cells.

3. Genetic structure:
- Female – Last pair of chromosomes are same so XX.
- Male – Last pair of chromosomes are different so XY.

- Body cell – Contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

- Nucleus – Contains chromosomes.
- Chromosome – Large molecules of DNA that contains many genes that controls
characteristics by coding for specific combination of amino acids to form specific
protein.
- DNA – Very long, twisted strands to form double helix structure of genes which
contains 4 bases that contains coded genetic information that determines inherited
characteristics.
- Gene – Small section of DNA that controls characteristics by coding for specific
combination of amino acids to form specific protein.
 - Allele – Different form of genes that controls characteristics by coding for specific
combination of amino acids to form specific protein.
- Amino acid – Contains sequence of 3 bases.
- Bases order – Controls assembled order of amino acids to form specific protein.

- Homozygous – Alleles in genotype are same.

- Heterozygous – Alleles in genotype are different.
- Dominant allele – Expressed in phenotype when at least 1 of it is present.
- Recessive allele – Expressed in phenotype when 2 of it is present.

4. Genetic disorders:
- Diseases – Can be inherited.
- Extra chromosome – Causes Down’s Syndrome.

5. Genetic manipulation:
- Tissue culture – Uses small plant cell groups.
- Advantage – Plants reproduce asexually from 1 parent, so mixture of genetic
information, so no variation in clones that are genetically identical offspring, so
desirable characteristics are passed on to new plants.

- Embryo transplant –
1. Unspecialized cells are split from developing animal embryo.
2. Unspecialized cells as genetically identical embryos are transplanted into host
mothers.

- Adult cell cloning –

1. Removes nucleus of unfertilized egg cell/replaces it with nucleus of adult body cell,
such as skin cell.
2. Electric shock acts as catalyst so egg cell divides by mitosis to form embryo cells.
3. Once embryo develops into ball of cells, ball of cells are inserted into female womb
to continue development.

- Therapeutic cloning – Produces embryo with stem cells of same genes as patient to
medically treat patient
- Use – Treats paralysis
- No rejection – Produces embryo which has stem cells with same genes as patient.
- Ethical concern – Potential harm to embryo which has life.

- Genetic engineering –
1. Enzymes isolate required gene by cutting gene off chromosome of cell.
2. Gene is inserted into vector that’s usually virus or bacterial plasmid.
3. Vector with genes is inserted into required cells.
- Done at early stage of development – Develops with desired characteristics.

- GM (Genetically Modified) crops – Crops’ genes are modified with genetic

engineering.
- Uses – Crops can be resistant to insect attacks/herbicides.
 - Advantage – Increases yield.
- Disadvantages –
1. Affects population of wildflowers/insects.
2. Affects health of humans that eat GM crops.

UNIT 6 – Variation and Evolution

1. Variation:
- Variation causes – Caused by genes, such as genes inherited from reproduction or
genes mutated, environment, such as diet, or both.
- Similar characteristics causes – Parents have genes that contain genetic information
passed on by gametes to offspring.

2. Evolution:
- Lamarck’s Theory – Changes that occur in organism’s life is inherited.
- Natural selection – Theory of evolution that life began millions of years ago.
1. Organisms of species show wide range of genetic variation from difference in genes.
2. Organisms with characteristics most suited to environment are more likely to
survive/reproduce successfully
3. Genes that allowed organisms to survive/reproduce successfully are passed on by
gametes to next generation.

3. Speciation:
1. Isolation – Two populations of species become separated.
2. Genetic variation – Each population had wide range of alleles that control their
characteristics.
3. Different environment – Each population has different environmental conditions.
4. Natural selection – Alleles that control for characteristics which help organism
survive are selected. (refer to 3 marker on natural selction)
5. Speciation – Two populations become so different that successful interbreeding
leading to fertile offspring is impossible.
DNA has a specific order of bases a gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein each
amino acid is coded for by three bases each antibody has a specific order of amino acids

- Coordination center is pancreas?

- Not used brain in reflex
- Can use pencil?